The culture of management versus medicine

Are doctors, good managers? Are they even trained at all to be managers? These are poignant questions that have always arisen from the dichotomy that seems to exist between the arts of medicine for which a doctor is trained and the acts of management to which he is constantly exposed to within the hospital walls. Until a doctor actually seat down to ask the question sincerely, scrutinize his answer properly and task appropriate steps at merging the two indispensable qualities, he would constantly be faced with challenges that can be more Herculean than arriving at differential diagnoses. These two concepts are indispensable in the life of a doctor, and that of any other health professional. They can actually be merged. More than that, really, they must be merged for full and productive society. A medical officer trained in the art of medicine must develop the skills of human relationships: these skills would help him manage the enormous resources that are his disposal for sustaining a functional health care centre. These resources are human resources: the colleagues at work, other members of the medical team which he works such as nurses, physiotherapists, laboratory technologists etc, and even the patients that he attends to. A great deal of effort has to be put in organizing this group of people; it is in doing this that productivity is ascertained, excellence fostered and results become increasing forthcoming. Other health care providers need be aware of this important knowledge. Government officials who are involved in funding the health sector also need to be carried along in this train of Medicine and Management train for holistic and productive funding. It is therefore not far from the truth that the culture of medicine and management need prompt reconciliation. The need for reconciliation is more overwhelming and irresistible as facts abound for its emergency. The differences need to be reconciled as soon as possible. The reconciliation is possible. More than possible, it could be said that it is existing, only that it is silent. The clamor then would be for a formal and gradual or sudden erosion of the apparent dichotomy. This can be achieved through a foundational work. No strong change can be made to a structure without an overhauling of its foundation. The medical school for the health practitioners and the other institutions of higher learning are the major places where this can be achieved. For medical personnel, education among managerial skills in their medical training can be of tremendous impact in achieving this indispensable reconciliation. For managers interested in medicine, an introductory course on medical education would also help. If it is part of curriculum, it gradually becomes a way of life that would span ages. Apart of this consistent courses and seminars would also be of help for all health workers. These would insidiously push this point home. Really, if this is done, there would enhanced health care delivery as more managers of all forms of resources would be produced. With these, and the general Public benefit a lot. SOURCES Harvard Medical School [Medicine and Management] www.kff.org [Kaiser family foundation]

Paterson, Katherine. Bridge to Terabithia

Children, by their very nature, are friendlier and more loving than adults. Children also find it easier than adults to believe in the imagination and thereby build castles in the air. Thus, two lonely children in Katherine Paterson’s Bridge to Terabithia build a bridge to Terabithia, which happens to be their very own imaginary forest kingdom. Jesse Aarons Jr. is a middle child among five siblings settled with their parents in rural Virginia. While his father works away in Washington D. C. , Jesse is not among his mother’s favorite children.She does not seem to have much time for the son. Even so, Jesse’s sister, May Belle, shows love for her brother and even looks up to him. Leslie Burke, another important character in the book, is the only child of rich writers who have moved into Jesse’s area only recently. After Leslie wins a race that Jesse had been preparing all summer to win himself, in spite of the fact that the race is meant for â€Å"boys only, † the two strike a friendship. Both Jesse and Leslie are loners who do not get along very well with the other children at school.Jesse is interested in art, while his dad in Washington D. C. disapproves. Leslie does not have a television at home. So, Jesse shares his love of art with his new friend, Leslie. She, in turn, describes to her new friend her own love of fantasy tales. Through these discussions emerge a new idea – that of creating a magical kingdom. This imaginary kingdom is created near the children’s homes and in the woods. What is more, this new kingdom belonging only to Jesse and Leslie is accessible only by means of a rope that must swing over the creek.The kingdom is called Terabithia, and Jesse and Leslie are respectively named the King and the Queen of Terabithia. Jesse and Leslie spend each day at Terabithia after school. It is in their very own kingdom that the two children finally find their own place in the world. They shed their fears in th is kingdom to boot, such as the fear of the bully, Janice Avery from 7th grade. One day when Jesse is out to the National Gallery of Art in Washington D. C. on a field trip with his music teacher, Ms.Edmunds, whom he admires very much, Leslie goes off to Terabithia on her own. But while she is trying to cross the bridge to Terabithia – the rope that swings over a creek which is rain-swollen – her head hits a rock and the girl falls into the water to drown. Although Jesse cannot easily get over the death of Leslie, he overcomes the grief by remembering the strength that his new friendship had given him. Jesse overcomes his grief also by returning to Terabithia to perhaps save the life of Leslie, imagining that she may be alive somehow.While he is searching for Leslie, he hears the cry of a young voice calling for help. At first, Jesse believes that he has found Leslie alive. However, the voice calling out to him is that of his younger sister, May Belle. Jesses helps out his younger sister who has got stuck right in the middle of the rope over the creek. Before Leslie’s parents leave Jesse’s area, the boy asks them whether he could take some wooden planks that are lying in their shed. The parents reply that Jesse may have anything left over by them.Jesse takes the wooden planks to Terabithia and builds a bridge to replace the nasty rope over the creek. Once he is finished, he takes May Belle along with him to Terabithia to declare that she would be the Queen of Terabithia from now. Hence, the Bridge to Terabithia becomes an extraordinary adventure for young children, who would also learn how to face the realities of life through this wonderful read. Indeed, the book has important lessons for young children, one of the more important ones of which appears to be the use of reason.

Controversies in Organ Trade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Controversies in Organ Trade - Essay Example The author of the paper states that since health and money are two of the major considerations in life, the rich but sickly individual may be willing to buy an organ being sold in order to survive, while the poor having normal health would be willing to sell his body organ in return for a reasonable amount of money also for survival, given that either’s lives will not be put into high risk of harm. This argument may be viewed as a win-win situation by the proponents of organ trade while the oppositions, in contrast, may view this as a form of human exploitation. While commercialization of human organ is still illegal, the number of individuals waiting for organ transplant will continue to rise due to shortage of donors. To begin with, the legality of organ donation was honored in 1984 when the U.S. Congress passed the National Organ Transplant Act or NOTA in an effort to strengthen the nation’s ability to provide organs for transplant (Greussner and Benedetti 16). The N OTA strictly prohibits the commercial enterprise (buying/selling) in organ transplantation and provides protection and safety for the living donors (Greussner and Benedetti 17). In the U.S., as well as in all other countries, organ trafficking for profit is illegal, except in Iran (Cholia). With the ethical aspect, the net positive balance between recipient risk/benefit and donor risk/benefit justifies the use of living donors for organ transplantation (Greussner and Benedetti 17). Furthermore, the importance of organ donation is no longer debatable as it has already been proven that organ transplantation saves life. The need for solid organ transplantation has rapidly expanded beyond the supply of available organ donors and the most of which are in need of kidney transplant (Gruessner and Benedetti 16). The Organ Procurement Transplantation Network or OPTN showed 26,218 successful transplants and 13,252 donors from January to November 2010. Base on the above figures, it can be noti ced that the number of donors is just slightly above 10% of the total number of individuals waiting for donated organ transplants. In spite of the various promotional efforts by the authorities in-charged in organ donation, the reluctance of the people to voluntarily donate their body organs still remains. Could it be the lack of compensatory return that is worthy for the risk the donors will be taking? Because of this imbalance issues in the scheme of voluntarism for organ donation, some people in great need resorted to opt in the black market where there is greater access for organs from persons who are willing to provide healthy organs in exchange for money. Suddath and A. Altman presented the existence of organ black market when Levy Izhak Rosenbaum, a New York City resident, was accused to orchestrate the sale of a human kidney for $160,000. They added that most sales take place in developing countries, where a kidney can often be purchased for the price of a high-end TV. The W orld Health Organization also stated that through the purchase and sale of transplant organs from live donors are prohibited in many countries, the shortage of an indigenous supply of organs has led to the development of the international organ trade, where potential recipients travel abroad to obtain organs through commercial transactions (Shimazono).  

The Divergence of U.S. and UK Takeover Regulation Essay

The Divergence of U.S. and UK Takeover Regulation - Essay Example In the article, there is a big difference in takeover regulation of companies in UK and US. The law of Delaware in the United States provides a peaceful condition in which the ruling board is given the mandate in the decision making of the type of tender to be issued. On the other side, United Kingdom uses a defensive tactic by targeting the ruling board. This tactic prohibits the management from interacting with other management in a peaceful manner. However, during the takeover regulation in the US, the court usually decides over tender and offers the rules concerning it. On the contrary, UK lawyers disappears when the hostile bidders launches their bids. By the use of this tactic, the UK were able to private their regime through the institutional inventors of which their counterparts could not. Though both the American and English system of corporate governance has different features, they share ownership. The hostile tactic of takeover gives priority to function as a disciplinary instrument undertaken by the management. Nevertheless, both possess different rules and regulations governing the takeover battle. Finally, the difference in approach between US and UK is relevant as it provides education leading to enhancement of the economy of the entire

CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR - case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR - case study - Essay Example Thus, in this case, qualitative research was used to generate data that is based on the participants’ own categories of meaning, it is useful for studying a limited number of cases in detail, and tends to collect data in realistic settings (Oppenheim 1992)).The availability of relevant resources and time also played a contributory role to the methodology used. Methodology helps to organize, represent, and analyze data and information in a bid to answer the research questions of the study. The following are the basic steps involved in this section of methodology: The research has been designed in a survey based which was meant to elicit information from a limited number of people believed to have the information being sought, those who were able and willing to communicate. Thus, this survey about a small group of youths was meant to count representative samples and make inferences about the whole population. The study sought to describe the perceptions and views held by the youths in response to a social marketing campaign meant to change their behaviour with regards to drinking alcohol. Qualitative data is any form of data that cannot be statistically quantified (Struwig and Stead 2004). In this case, primary data was gathered through interviews from the respondents in a bid to get their view about changing behaviour towards drinking alcohol. The interviews incorporated in this study were conducted face to face with the respondents. The interview questions were maintained at a simple level and easy to understand. As shown in Appendix 1, the questions were open ended and exploratory in nature and focus was on gathering information about the main topic within a short period so that the respondents could respond quickly without wasting their time and efforts. The advantage of the interview is that first hand information can be obtained from the respondents with regards to their opinions and

The Crusader Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Crusader - Essay Example ians but as the time passed, popes and Christian kings used it for their own political benefit2 and this benefit was based on blood shedding of thousands of Christians and Muslims. Modern exploration of crusades is commenced by Erdmann’s work, Die Entstehung des Kreuzzugsgedankens3 in the year 1935. According to him crusades were the product of the eleventh century. They were a means of transmitting the active military towards another place. They can be regarded as products of the reform movement which were used to purify the church and the Christian society as a whole. In Erdmann’s opinion the apparent aim of the crusades was Jerusalem. The rescue of the Holy City was the motivation that made Pope call the First Crusade or it was according to Erdmann’s view, in the defense of Eastern Christians. The actual words of Urban II are still unknown but according to Cowdrey, the pope was worried about the holy city i.e. Jerusalem and that was when the first crusade was given birth. There is little criticism received to Erdmann’s work but Cowdrey criticized it. In his opinion, the crusades are linked to the Cluniac reform4. George VII (1073-85), Victor III (1086-7) and Urban II (1088-99) are examples in this context. Historians also believed that the medieval men could not take up the religious words uttered by them. They believed that the post Enlightenment era was full of people who talked about profiting the world hereafter but actually they were into profiting the existing world for themselves. The modern investigations led by Jonathan Riley Smith have proved it to the world that the number of men and women who participated in the crusades is larger than known to history. The crusade army was a mix of rich, poor, saints, sinners and all of them had some kind of motivation to do so. Pope Urban’s preaching motivated the people for the First Crusade which was successful for them as well because the drive for it was â€Å"spiritual†5. Muslims were not

Using economic principles, analyse the law of obligation (Negligence) Essay

Using economic principles, analyse the law of obligation (Negligence) - Essay Example Economic analysis of law uses microeconomic hypotheses to examine rules of negligence and obligation. Economic analysis of law brought at the centre of academic discourse by Richard Posner in 1973 in The Economic Analysis of Law. His work paved the way for precise legal debates on the economic analysis of the law and laid strong foundations for subsequent literature on the economic analysis of the law of negligence. There have been several writers on the economic analysis of the law, some with same viewpoints and same with variations on how law should be affected by economics1. For example, Friedman calls for an economic analysis of law for the simple reason that there should be some strong connection liking effectiveness and justice. He believes that effectiveness stands at the centre of what economics provide today and for this reason, it is better if economic ideas can shape the law. Friedman further asserts that economics is a deep-seated issue is the connotation of reasonable ch oice, and therefore, an indispensable tool for sculpting the outcomes of legal rules. Wolfgang on his part states that economic analysis of the law means that there should always be awareness on the issue of why, along with how human interactions can be guided effectively by the law. He believes economic tools can be used to guide human actions, with particular attention to obligations owed towards others. 3. One yet school of thought is that posited by Mitchell and Shavell who believe that there should and for all times, be a good probability for the imposition of sanctions on negligent behaviour. Economic analysis will therefore guide the magnitude and form of these sanctions so that eventual liability would cause deterrence on the part of the torfeasor.4 Much debate about economic analysis of law has been also been propounded by Ronald Coase (1961)5, Guido Calabresi (1961)6, Commons [1924]7, Hale [1952]8 as well as Richard Posner [1973]9 with controversial ideas in his assertion that rules of common law are efficient and that rules of law must be efficient. He explains â€Å"efficient† to mean compliance to pay. In trying to have comprehensive understanding of these, Kornhauser (1984, 1985)10 brings two assertions: efficient rules are selected for legal processes and people are motivated to fear the law because of its economic consequences. These assertions however, do not match up unswervingly to conventional questions in the philosophy of law because normativity and the requirement to comply with the law are not openly looked at. Economic analysis of law will use a policy perspective to make this evaluation and this angle of reasoning often absolutely adopt some alternative of legal positivism. Analyzing the behavioral effects of the law, it is posited that the law is clearly known only by judges rather than the subjects of the law. Of course, there is strong reason for wanting to believe that the present American tort law supports the basis for th e economic analysis of the law. This particularly relates to the section of economically analyzing the law often called wealth maximization stating that there must be equality of positions between the plaintiff and defendant. This is very true if the plaintiff is thinking of productively benefiting from the negligence of breach of obligations on the part of the defendant. Amartya says: â€Å"The need for incentives may be rightly seen as including an element of blackmail. It would typically include the claims to higher reward for the better endowed and the more productive, who can decide to do less of those of their activities that benefit others, unless they receive more ‘compensation’. If this connection does actually work this way, then an uncompromising pursuit of equality may be self-defeating. Blackmail or not, the incentive connections must be taken into account by someone trying to promote equality†.11 In the late 19th century, economic analysis

Factors Contributed to the Great Famine in Ireland Research Paper

Factors Contributed to the Great Famine in Ireland - Research Paper Example The political, social and economic reasons for the famine have long been the subject of historical discussion and debate. The fact that from 1801, under the Act of Union, Ireland was governed as part of the United Kingdom, with executive power in the hands of British officials, is a damning reality and one that casts primary blame for this historically horrific event squarely on Britain. The role of in the tragedy cannot be denied. ...That an island which is said to be (following quote from the Act of Union, repeated in the Continental Congress of America Address from its inclusion in Mitchel’s The Last Conquest of Ireland )an integral part of the richest empire on the globe—and the most fertile portion of that empire;—with British Constitution, Habeas Corpus, Members of Parliament, and Trial by Jury—should in five years lose two and a half millions of its people (more than one-fourth) by hunger, and fever the consequence of hunger, and flight beyond sea to escape from hunger,—while that empire (Britain) of which it is said to be a part, was all the while advancing in wealth, prosperity, and comfort, at a faster pace than ever before ,—is a matter that seems to ask elucidation.2 Elucidation of the subject comes to a great degree from John Mitchel, political writer and Irish patriot whose The Last Conquest of Ireland provides valuable and extensive information to support the thesis that Britain, while not entirely responsible for the causes that created the famine, was largely responsible for the extent to which the Great Famine, as it is called, devastated the country. Other primary and secondary resources support the information covering the two major elements involving the British government that contributes powerful and devastating evidence of British nonchalance in the face of the tragedy, collusion with powerful entities.  

What is a circular economy, what are some of the key principles, Essay

What is a circular economy, what are some of the key principles, concepts and building blocks and what system shifts might be needed to bring it about at scale - Essay Example This report deals with the analysis of a circular economy by considering the main principles and challenges associated with this kind of economy, by assessing the benefits and need of this kind of economy and by discussing how this economy has already been implemented by some nations cross the world. For this purpose, evidences are drawn for Jamaica and the Caribbean regions to understand the exact proposition and need of a circular economy. The report is suitably concluded by highlighting and summarizing the key findings and supporting the arguments as presented in favour of the need to shift from the traditional industrial economy framework to a circular industrial economy framework. The circular economy can perhaps be best explained by drawing a parallel of this economy with the traditional linear economy that is currently existent in the industrial domains. In the current economic system, the companies and industries tend to extract resources from the ecosystem at an accelerating pace and then use them into the manufacturing and production processes to make products that are usually disposed after some time of use (Lowitt, 2008). This approach seems to be efficient from the perspective of an organization or an individual. However, if observed from a global and holistic view, then this approach would seem to be highly unsustainable and hazardous for the future of the ecosystem and the planet (McDonough, Braungart and Clinton, 2013). Therefore in order to help the organizations, ecosystem and the industries to survive, an economic system should be developed that would operate within the natural and planetary boundaries. The concept of the circular economy is dev eloped on the basis of the idea of decoupling the prosperity and growth of the organizations and industries through the use of the ecosystem and natural resources with the concern

Fantastic Voyage Essay Example for Free

Fantastic Voyage Essay Once again my mini sub and I will be miniaturized making us 8 microns long and witnessing another Fantastic Voyage in a human body. This time I will be swallowed by a 55 year old man, while he is eating his meal consisting of a hamburger, French fries, and a root beer. I will be piloting my sub through his gastrointestinal tract to monitor the digestion of his meal, I will be describing all major structures I go through. Digestion begins in the mouth. A brain reflex triggers the flow of saliva when we see or even think of food. Saliva moistens the food while the teeth chew it up and make it easier to swallow. Amylase, which is the digestive enzyme, found in saliva, starts to break down starch into simpler sugars before the food even leave the mouth. The nervous pathway involved in salivary excretion requires stimulation of receptors in the mouth, sensory impulses to the brain stem and parasympathetic impulses to salivary glands. Swallowing his food happens when the muscles in his tongue and mouth move the food into his pharynx. The pharynx, which is the passage way for food and air, a small flap of skin called the epiglottis closes over the pharynx to prevent food from entering the trachea and causing choking. For swallowing to happen correctly a combination of 25 muscles must all work together at the same time. After being chewed and swallowed the food enters the esophagus or gullet is the muscular tube in vertebrates through which ingested food passes from the throat to the stomach. It connects the pharynx, which is the body cavity that is common to both the digestive and respiratory systems behind the mouth, with the stomach, where the second stage of digestion is initiated. The esophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic wave like muscle movements called peristalsis to force food from the throat into the stomach. At the end of the esophagus there is a sphincter that allows food into the stomach then closes back up so the food can not travel back up into the esophagus. The distal end of the esophagus is slightly narrowed because of the thickened circular muscles. This part of the esophagus is called the lower esophageal sphincter. Now I follow the food down the esophagus into the stomach. The stomach is a hallow saclike organ enclosed in a muscular wall. These flexible muscles allow the stomach to expand when you eat. The stomach has three tasks in digestion. Mixing foods with gastric juices, gastric juices are secretions from the stomach lining that contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin, an enzyme that digests protein. Hydrochloric acid I nteh stomach kills bacteria taken in with food and creates an acidic environment. Storing swallowed food and liquids, the stomach holds food and liquids Next is the pancreas, liver and gallbladder. The pancreas liver and gallbladder are essential for digestion. The pancreas produces enzymes that help digest proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, the liver produces bile that helps the body absorb fat, and the gallbladder stores the bile until it is needed. The enzymes and bile travel through special channels called ducts and into the small intestine where they help break down the food. After being in the stomach food enters the duodenum. The duodenum is a hollow jointed tube connecting the stomach to the jejunum. It is the first and shortest part of the small intestine. This is also where the bile and pancreatic juices enter the intestine. The jejunum is a part of the small bowel, located between the distal end of the duodenum and the proximal part of the ileum. The inner surface of the jejunum its mucous membrane, is covered in projections called villi, which increase the surface area of tissue available to absorb nutrients from the gut contents. The ileum its function is to absorb vitamin B12 and bile salts. The three main sections of the small intestine is the duodenum, the jejunum, the ileum. In the small intestine bile produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder, pancreatic enzymes and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food. After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine in the large intestine some of the water and electrolytes are removed from the food many microbes in the large intestine help in the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called cecum. The superior mesenteric vein drains blood from the small intestine jejunum and ileum. At its termination behind the neck of the pancreas the superior mesenteric vein combines with the splenic vein to form the hepatic portal vein. Before joining with the splenic vein, it lies next to the superior mesenteric artery wich arises from abdominal aorta. The portal vein drains blood to capillary beds in the liver. From here the hepatic vein arises and drains into the inferior cava where it enters the right atrium of the heart. From here he deoxygenated blood enters the right ventricle via the tricuspid valve. From the right ventricle it enters the pulmonary artery via the pulmonary valve and enters the lungs. From here the deoxygenated blood enters the left atrium of heart via the pulmonary vein and then the left ventricle via the mitral valve. From the left ventricle blood enters he aorta the ascending aorta. Thoracic aorta and ultimately abdominal aorta. The abdominal aorta divides into the left renal artery which enters the kidneys and supplies blood over there. Each renal artery divides into segmental arteries dividing further into interlobar arteries which penetrate the renal capsule and extend through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. These interlobular arteries supply blood to the accurate arteries that run through the boundary of the cortex and the medulla. Each arcuate artery supplies several interlobular arteries that feed into the afferent arterioles that supply the glomeruli and hence the kidneys. The urinary tract from bowmans capsule is, the blood then enters the kidney via glomerular membrane in the nephrons. The blood trickles from bowman’s capsule to renal tubule, that is proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henley, distal convoluted tubule and then into collecting duct system. The blood from the cortex is passed to medulla of kidneys. The urine formed is collected via ureter. The urine from the ureter then passes to urinary bladder and leaves the body from the urethra. Homeostasis in the body is only possible if the cardiovascular system is working properly. This means that the system needs to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the tissue fluid that surrounds the cells and also take away the metabolic waste, the heart is composed of arteries that take blood from the heart, and vessels that return blood to the heart. Blood is pumped by the heart into two circuits the pulmonary and systemic circuits. The pulmonary circuit carries blood through the lungs where gas exchange occurs and the systemic system transports blood to all parts of the body where exchange with tissue fluid takes place. The cardiovascular system works together with all other systems to maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis and the urinary system, toxic nitrogenous wastes accumulate as proteins and nucleic acids are broken down and used for other purposes. The urinary system rids the body of these wastes. The urinary system is also directly involved in maintaining proper blood volume and ion concentration within the blood. One other contribution is that the kidneys produce a hormone that stimulates red blood cell production. The kidneys also play an important role in maintaining the correct water content of the body and the correct salt composition of extracellular fluid. External changes that lead to excess fluid loss trigger feedback mechanisms that act to inhibit fluid loss.

Source Of Errors In Language Learning Research English Language Essay

Source Of Errors In Language Learning Research English Language Essay Introduction Errors are integral part of language acquisition. The phenomenon of error has long interested SLA researchers. In a traditional second language teaching situation, they are regarded as the linguistic phenomena deviant from the language rules and standard usages, reflecting learners deficiency in language competence and acquisition device. Many teachers simply correct individual errors as they occur, with little attempt to see patterns of errors or to seek causes in anything other than learner ignorance. Presently, however, with the development of linguistics, applied linguists, psychology and other relevant subjects, peoples attitude toward errors changed greatly. Instead of being problem to be overcome or evils to be eradicated, errors are believed to be evidence of the learners stages in their target language (TL) development. It is through analyzing learner errors that errors are elevated from the statue of undesirability to that of a guide to the inner working of the language lea rning process (Ellis, 1985,p 53) In the field of SLA, there have been three influential approaches to errors with a general movement from approaches emphasizing the product, the error itself, to approaches focusing on the underlying process under which the errors are made. The analysis of error sources has been regarded as a central aspect in the study of learner errors. Researchers believe that the clearer the understanding of the sources of learners errors, the better second language teachers will be able to detect the process of L2 learning. Error Making errors is the most natural thing in the world and it is evidently attached to the human beings. But, how do we define error? There are different definitions of the word as Ellis explains learners make errors in both comprehension and production, the first being rather scantly investigated. All learners make errors which have a different name according to the group committing the error. Childrens errors have been seen as transitional forms, the native speakers ones are called slips of the tongue and the second language errors are considered unwanted forms (George 1972). We use the term error to refer to a systematic deviation from a selected norm or set of norms. According to Lennon (1991) an error is a linguistic form or combination of forms which in the same context and under similar conditions of production would, in all likelihood, not be produced by the speakers native speakers counterparts. On one hand, it was considered to be a sign of inadequacy of the teaching techniques, something negative which must be avoided, and on the other hand it was seen as a natural result of the fact that since by nature we cant avoid making errors, we should accept the reality and try to deal with them. The error-as-progress conception is based on the Chomskys idea that a child generates language through innate universal structures. So, using this symbolic code, one can have access to different pieces of knowledge not as something mechanically learned but as mentally constructed through try and error. The idea is now that the second language learners form hypotheses about the rules to be formed in the target language and then test them out against input data and modify them accordingly. There is an approach which concerns error as being the result of social-cognitive interaction. This means that the error implicitly carries a social norm as well as cognitive process. The error also carries a social and cultural component which makes it different in different societies. Cultural differences in the error Previous research has shown that cultural differences exist in the susceptibility of making fundamental attribution error: people from individualistic cultures are prone to the error while people from collectivistic cultures commit less of it (Miller, 1984). It has been found that there is a differential attention to social factors between independent peoples and interdependent peoples in both social and nonsocial contexts: Masuda and his colleagues (2004) in their cartoon figure presentation experiment showed that Japaneses judgments on the target characters facial expression are more influenced by surrounding faces than those of the Americans; whereas Masuda and Nisbett (2001) concluded from their underwater scenes animated cartoon experiment that Americans are also more likely than Japanese participants to mark references to focal objects (i.e. fish) instead of contexts (i.e. rocks and plants). These discrepancies in the salience of different factors to people from different cultu res suggest that Asians tend to attribute behavior to situation while Westerners attribute the same behavior to the actor. Consistently, Morris Peng (1994) found from their fish behavior attribution experiment that more American than Chinese participants perceive the behavior (e.g. an individual fish swimming in front of a group of fish) as internally rather than externally caused. One explanation for this difference in attribution lies in the way people of different cultural orientation perceive themselves in the environment. Particularly, Markus and Kitayama (1991) mentioned how (individualistic) Westerners tend to see themselves as independent agents and therefore prone themselves to individual objects rather than contextual details. in the second language teaching/ learning process the error has always been regarded as one of the most generally known approaches concerning the error throughout human history is to consider it a negative effect or result, even worth to be punished. According to Corder (1967): A learners errors then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using. They are significant in three different ways: first to the teacher, in that they tell him is he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed. Second, they provide the researchers with evidence of how language is learned or acquired. Third they are indispensible to the learner himself because he can regard the making of errors as a device used in order to learn. The sources of error might be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, epistemic or residing in the discourse structures. Richards(1971),when trying to identify the causes of competence errors he came up with three types of errors: interference errors, which reflect the use of elements from one language to the other, intralingual errors, subdivided into errors due to overgeneralization, or to ignorance of rules restriction, which is incomplete application of the rules, or finally due to the false concept hypothesis, which demonstrate the general characteristics of rule learning and third developmental errors when the learner builds hypothesis about the target language based on limited experience. Assuming a term hierarchy of errors, Burt and Kiparasky (1974) suggest that there is a difference between global and local errors. They say: Global mistakes are those that violate rules involving the overall structure of a sentence, the relations among constituent clauses, or, in a simple sentence, the relations among major constituents. Local mistakes cause trouble in a particular constituent, or in clause of a complex sentence. They claim that global errors are more serious and rank higher in the error hierarchy than local ones, and they should be corrected prior to all others in language classrooms. Accordingly, errors in tense and aspect are regarded as local errors. They may be minor errors, for they may not cause grave breakdowns in communication. However, they are extremely common mistakes among second language learners of English and very much worth investigating since tense and aspect represent one of the most essential parts of English grammar. Corder (1967) goes a step further to propose different terminologies for these two kinds of errors and stresses that we must make a clear distinction between mistakes and errors; the former refers to non-systematic performance errors of chance circumstances, whereas the latter can be defined as the systematic errors of the learner from which we are able to reconstruct his knowledge of the language to date. In the following discussion, the analysis focuses on competence errors: There are two major approaches to analyzing errors committed by a target language learner. Contrastive Analysis (CA), Error Analysis (EA). Theoretical base of CA lies in Behaviorist Learning Theory; while the EA is closely related with the emergence of Interlanguage Theory (Ellis, 2005) Behaviorist learning theory accounts of errors: The behaviorist learning theory illustrates the TL learning is a mechanical process of habit formation. Habits entail over-learning, which ensures that learning of new habits as a result of proactive inhibition. Thus, the challenge facing the L2 learner is to overcome the interference of L1 habits. Basing on the habit formation, contrastive analysis sought to identify the features of the L2 that differed from those of the L1 so that learners could be helped to form the new habits of the L2 by practicing them intensively. Most errors made by L2 learners were the result of differences between L1 and L2 structure. (Martin 1996) Interference, the CA insists, is the result of unfamiliarity with the rules of a TL and psychological causes, such as inadequate learning (Swan, 2001). Transfer can be positive or negative: linguistic features of the L1 that are similar to those of the TL will facilitate learning (positive transfer); those aspects of the L1 that are different to the TL grammatical and phonological system will hinder SLA and cause the learner to make numerous production errors(negative transfer). Thus difference between the L1 and L2 create learning difficulty which results in errors, while the similarities between them facilitate rapid and easy learning (Ellis, 1985 cited Corder). According to behaviorist learning theory, both types of transfer are the outcome of automatic and subconscious use of old habits in new learning situations (Dulay, Burt Krashen) Rod Ellis (1985) assesses, errors, according to the theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning. By comparing the L1 with TL, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential errors. The idea of the error as an effect to be avoided has been especially supported by behaviorism, being considered an obstacle to language learning. To them error has been a symptom of ineffective teaching or as evidence of failure and they believed that when they occur they are to be remedied by provision of correct forms; that is to say, use of intensive drilling and over-teaching. It was also believed that interference takes place whenever there is a difference between native mother tongue and the target language. A hypothesis based on Lados suggestion in linguistic across cultures where he states in comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease all difficulties in foreign language learning (Lado, 1957) 2. Interlanguage (IL) theory accounts of errors (i) Selinker (1972) coined the term interlanguage to refer to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learners L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: To refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition To refer to the system that is observed at a single stage of development To refer to particular L1, L2 combinations. Other terms that refer to the same basic idea are approximate system and transitional competence. (ii) Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a language, whose errors are caused by several different processes. These include: Borrowing patterns from the mother tongue. Extending patterns from the target language Expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known from Richards, Jack et al (1992). (iii)Interlanguage refers to the separateness of a second language learners system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target language. Interlanguage is neither the system of target language nor the system of the native language, but instead falls between the two; it is a system based upon the best attempt of learners to provide order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding them. By gradual process of trial and error and hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer and closer approximations to the system used by native speakers of the language. (iv)Rod Ellis (2005, 54) views Error Analysis as being based on emergence of IL theory, that is known to be used to explain effectively the errors committed in SLA processes. Slinker (1972) tried to find a way to explain the errors that some students make, have nothing to do with their foreign language; for example a Spanish speaker, an Arabic speaker and a Japanese speaker might all make the same mistake in English which was not related to their respective languages. According to Slinker, L2 learners go through a process of making and testing hypotheses about the target language. They begin with knowledge about language in general, gained from their native language, and move toward the target language. Bit by bit, they readjust their mental model of the new language, improving their communicative competency in that language. Successful hypotheses become mental constructions that correspond to the rules of the new language. Brown(1993) viewed ,truly successful students make the journ ey to a high level of competency in the target language, while less successful students become fossilized somewhere along the IL continuum. For around 35 years Selinker has viewed learners errors as evidence of positive efforts by the learner to learn a new language. This view of language learning allowed for the possibilities of learners making deliberate attempts to control their own learning and, along with theories of cognitive processes in language learning. Errors are indispensable to learners since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn. A modern definition of language transfer is provided by Slinker (1992): language transfer is best thought of as a cover term for a whole class of behaviors, processes and constraints, each of which has to do with CLI (Cross Linguistic Influence), the influence and use of prior linguistic knowledge, usually but exclusively native language knowledge. Selinker (1992) pointed two highly significant con tributions that Corder made: that the errors of a learner, whether adult or child, are not random, but are in fact systematic and are not negative or interfering in any way with learning a TL but are, on the contrary, a necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypothesis. In 1994 Gass and Slinker defined errors as red flags that provide evidence of the learners knowledge of the second language. The learners developing knowledge of second language may have characteristics of the learners native language, characteristics of the second language, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems. Interlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about the second language.L2 learners process through an interlanguage, which is an independent knowledge of L1 and L2 system. Interlanguage Is systematic, because the learner selects the rul es systematically, learners bases plans on the rule system, in the same way as the native speaker bases on the internalized knowledge of L1 system. (iv)One of the crucial contributions of IL was its underlying assumption that the learners knowledge is integrated and systematically reorganized with previous knowledge of the native language. By a gradual process of trial-and-error or hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer approximations to the system used by the native speaker of the language. The characteristics of IL are described by many researchers as follows: Permeable, in the sense that rules that constitute the learners knowledge at any one stage are not fixed, but are open to amendment(Ellis1985:50) Dynamic, in the sense that L2 learner slowly revises their variable interim systems to accommodate new hypothesis about the TL system. Systematic, in that L2 learners IL is rule-governed, that is, the learner bases his performance plans on his existing rule system much the same way as the native speaker bases his plans on his internalized knowledge of the L1 system. The variable shape of interlanguage The concept of interlanguage has had a major impact on the field of second language acquisition, studies on interlanguage focus on the linguistic and psychological aspects of second language acquisition research. I will first outline how the interlanguage assumption developed .since the interlanguage concept is not only important for the development of the students grammar system; I will then explore how it applies to other components of language. I will also focus on the consequences of the concept for the teacher and his work in the classroom. Before the 1960s language was not considered to be a mental phenomenon. Like other forms of human behavior language is learnt by processes of habit formation. A child learns his mother tongue by imitating the sounds and patterns he hears around him. By approval or disapproval, adults reinforce the childs attempts and lead the efforts to the correct forms. Under the influence of cognitive linguists this explanation of first language acquisitio n was criticized. Language cant be verbal behavior only since children are able to produce an infinite number of utterances that have never heard before. This creativity is only possible because a child develops a system of rules. A large number of studies have shown that children actually do construct their own rule system, which develops gradually until it corresponds to the system of the adults. There is also evidence that they pass through similar stages acquiring grammatical rules. Through the influence of cognitive linguists and first language acquisition research the notion developed that second language learners, too, could be viewed as actively constructing rules from the data they encounter and that they gradually adapt these rules in the direction of the target language. However wrong and inappropriate learners own language system, they are grammatical in their own terms, since they are a product of the learners own language system. This system gradually develops toward t he rule-system of the target language. The various shapes of the learners language competence are called interlanguage. This draws to the fact that the learners language system is neither that of his mother tongue nor that of the second language, but contains elements of both. Therefore, errors need not be seen as signs of failure only, but as evidence of the learners developing system. While the behaviorist approach led to teaching methods which use drills and consider errors as signs of failure, the concept of interlanguage liberated language teaching and paved the way for communicative teaching methods. Since errors are considered a reflection of the students temporary language system and therefore a natural part of the learning process, teachers could now use teaching activities which did not call for constant supervision of the students language. Group work and pair work became suitable means for language learning. A brief review of approaches to analyses of errors Contrastive Analysis (CA) Contrastive analysis is an approach generated from behaviorist learning theory. Through CA applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first and second languages to predict errors. The basic concept behind CA was that a structural picture of any language could be constructed which might then be used in direct comparison with the structural picture of another language. Through a process of mapping one system onto another, similarities and differences could be identified. Identifying the differences would lead to a better understanding of the problems that a learner of the particular L2 would face. (Corder , 1983). CA stresses the influence of mother tongue in learning a second language in phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactic levels. It holds that L2 would be affected by L1. Here, language is taken as a set of habits and learning as the establishment of new habits, a view sprung from behaviorism, under which langu age is essentially a system of habits. In the course of language learning, L1 learning habits will be transferred into L2 learning habits. Therefore, in the case of L1 transfer into L2, if structures in the MT have their corresponding structures in the TL and L1 habits can be successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully and that would result in positive transfer. Contrastively, in the case of negative transfer or interference, certain elements of the MT have no corresponding counterparts in the TL, L1 habits would cause errors in the L2 and learners would transfer inappropriate properties of L1. CA places the environment as the predominant factor in SLA, while learners are believed to play only a passive role in accepting the impositions of the environment. We must not forget that there are numbers of errors made by language learners seem to be unrelated to the learners na tive language. According to SLA researchers non-interference errors were more pervasive in learner performance than CA were ready to recognize. Dulay and Burt (1973) studied the errors made by Spanish-speaking children learning English as an L2 and claimed that all of the learners errors had collected, 85% were developmental (non-interference), 12% were unique and only 3% were results of L1 interference. Primary tenets of CA are: Prime cause of difficulty and error in foreign language learning is interference coming from the learners native language. Difficulties are chiefly due to differences between the two languages The greater the difference s, the more acute the learning difficulties will be The results of a comparison between the two languages are needed to predict th e difficulties and errors which will occur in learning the target language What needs to be taught is discovered by comparing the languages and subtracting what is common to them. (Corder, 1981) 3. Error analysis (EA) It is defined as the study of linguistics ignorance, the investigation of what people do not know and how they attempt to cope with their ignorance, by James (2001).Error analysis was first introduced by Fries (1945) and Lado (1957) who have claimed that foreign or second language learners errors could be predicted on the basis of the differences between the learners native and second languages. They have also suggested that where the aspects of the target language are similar to those of the learners native language, learning will be easy; otherwise, it will be difficult and second language learners are expected to make errors .The field of error analysis in SLA was established in the 1970s by S. P. Corder and colleagues. A widely-available survey can be found in chapter 8 of Brown (2000). Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first an d second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language. This is the examination of those errors committed by students in both the spoken and written medium. Corder, who has contributed enormously to EA, writes this: The study of error is part of the investigation of the process of language learning. In this respect it resembles methodologically the study of the acquisition of the mother tongue. It provides us with a picture of the linguistic development of a learner and may give us indications as the learning process. Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not. Corder(1967) made use of Chomskys the competence versus performance distinction by associating errors with failures in competence and mistakes with failures in performance. In his view, a mistake occurs as the results of processing limitations rather than lack of competence. It signifies L2 learners failure of utilizing their knowledge of a TL rule. They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as I angry are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may also be cl assified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, I angry would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent. From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems. In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making. Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not with learner reception (listening and reading). Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable. For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned. In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage. Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching. Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology. EA emphasizes on the significance of errors in learners IL system, Brown (1994) may be, carried out directly for pedagogic purposes. Carl James (1998) viewed, EA developed out of the belief that errors indicate the learners stage of language learning and acquisition.th learner is seen as an active participant in the development of hypotheses regarding the rules of the target language just as a young child learning the first language. Errors are considered to be evidence of the learners strategy as he or she builds competence in the target language. These errors are defined as global which inhibit understanding and local which do not interfere with communication. Error analysis has been criticized as being an inefficient tool for studying the way second language learners develop their target language. It is argued that error analysis deals with the learners productive competence rather than the receptive one, and it is also an imperfect instrument for categorizing errors and explaining them. In the book Error and Interlanguage written by Pit Corder, he stated that various classifications of these error systems have been developed by error analysis researchers, three of which can be helpful for the teacher and are as follows. Pre-systematic; errors occur before the language learner has realized any system for classifying items being learned; the learner can neither correct nor explain this type of error. Systematic; errors occur after the learner has noticed a system and error consistently occurs; learner can explain but not correct the error. This classification relies on three major groups: (1) interference errors; (2) intralingual errors; (3)development errors. Interference errors are caused by the influence of the native language, in presumably those areas where the languages differ markedly. Intralingual errors originate with the structure to TL itself. The complexity of language encourages over-generalization, incomplete application of rules, and the failure to learn conditions for rule application. Development errors reflect the students attempt to make hypotheses about the language from the native language. Post-systematic; errors occur when learner is consistent in his or her recognition of systems; can explain and correct the error. The following steps are distinguished in conducting an EA: collection of a sample of learner language; identification of errors; explanation of errors; error evaluation (Ellis cited in 2005) Richards (1971) focused on the intralingual and developmental errors observed in the acquisition of English as a second language and further classified them into four categories: (i) Overgeneralization; covering instances where the learners create a deviant structure on the basis of his experience of other structure of the TL. (ii)Ignorance of the rule restriction, occurring as a result of failure to observe the restrictions or existing structures (iii) Incomplete application of rules, arising when the learners fail to fully develop a certain structure required to produce acceptable sentences (iv) False concepts hypothesized, deriving from faulty comprehension of distinctions in the TL. from the analyses of errors to the practice of error correction We know that in traditional classroom instruction is laid on accuracy, errors frequently corrected because the teacher thinks the error as a thorn in his/her flesh. Yet with the understanding of IL theory, the role of error correction has changed. Errors are considered natural products in language learning and in fact reflect the modes of learners developing system. What are the sources and causes of Errors? The following factors are identified as the source and causes of Errors Mother tongue interference Wilkins (1972) observes: When learning a foreign language an individual already knows his mother tongue, and it is this which he attempts to transfer. The transfer may prove to be justified because the structure of the two languages is similar-in that case we get positive transfer or facilitation- or may prove unjustified because the structure of the two languages are different- in that case we get negative transfer- or interference. Loan Words

The Relation of Personality in Politics Essay -- Political Psychology

While searching for information regarding social phobia, I stumbled across some interesting information. Information regarding the psychology of politics, I was negligent to such a concept until this point in time, and immediately I began searching for this information, rather than my previous interest. This paper will give a general viewpoint on politics from a psychological standpoint. Initially it will discuss political philosophers, and how their beliefs could have shaped the political system today. Second, the paper will look at personal attitudes in relation to politics, consisting, particularly of one’s values and beliefs. Lastly, the paper is going to provide an outlook on the issue from the psychodynamic approach of psychology, particularly through the opinions of its founder, Sigmund Freud. In the study of political philosophy many infamous names come about, although we are only going to look at the ideas of seven of them. Some of the earliest ideas of political systems were centered around Greek city-states, approximately between 750-500 B.C. Kagan, Aristotle, and Plato all provided very useful ideas to the understanding of political systems, but here we will see the for the first time how personal beliefs have influenced politics today. While Kagan believed that in order for life to be suitable for man life must be biased on justice, Aristotle believed that life could be good for man only if his life was in a community with others. This is not an attempt to prove or justify any beliefs, but to simply show the relation of personality. These two philosophers felt strongly about these two necessities for success in a community/political system, but yet neither of the ideas were the same. They both required different th... ...es that when politics are in mind, personal values should be taken out of the picture as much as possible, in order to base political beliefs solely off of the best interest of the nation, and the most respected outlook among citizens. Works Cited Bowen, D. (1968). Political behavior of the American public. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill publishing company. Eulau, H. (1969). Behavioralism in political science. New York, N.Y.: Atherton Press. Eysenck, H. (1974). The psychology of politics. Great Britain: Percy Lund, Humphries & Co. Ltd. L.N. Rieselbach, G. B. (1969). Psychology & politics. U.S.A.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Rieselbach, L. (1969). Psychology & politics. U.S.A.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Spranger, E. (1928). Types of men. Halle: M. Niemeyer. Stone, W. (1974). The psychology of politics. New York, N.Y.: The Free Press.

Victorian Dinner Parties :: Victorian Era

Victorian Dinner Parties Victorian dinner parties where associated with the upper class, not usually the middle class, and were attended by eminent guests of status. Lord Steyne, a character from the novel Vanity Fair, would have been invited to many such parties were he a real person who lived in that Era. The Victorian hostess had to consider three main things: The Guests At Victorian dinner parties, the hostess invited guests from the upper class of society. Typically, she invited one guest of honor, an eminent gentleman (Margetson 73). She also looked to invite some guests with musical skills or entertaining abilities. The number of men and women had to be equal, since every gentleman was given charge of a single lady of similar rank whom he was to accompany into the dinning room. During the course of the night, he made sure that she had a pleasant time (Ferguson). Pairing men and women into such couples was easy for the hostess when her guest had a spouse -- since she was required by etiquette to invite the spouse of her guest in addition to him - but pairing was more difficult when she invited unmarried persons. When she had a single man at her party, the hostess had the duty of finding him a single woman to entertain; though this task was difficult because ladies did not accept invitations unless they had an escort already, for fear of being call ed "fast" (Margetson 73). The Setting Pairing the guests was not the sole concern of the Victorian hostess. She had to make sure her house was in order, in particular, her parlor and dinning room, since the party was set in those two areas. First, guests would assemble in the parlor, where the pairing took place. Then, starting with the highest-ranking guest, each man escorted his lady into the dinning room, which the hostess decorated with opulence. After dinner, the ladies went back into the parlor for tea or coffee, while the men stayed at the table, talking, drinking and smoking. Next, the men went to join the women in the parlor. The ones who were too inebriated stayed behind. During this final part of the occasion, guests amused themselves with card games, magic tricks, and musical entertainment (Ferguson) . The Dinner The Victorian hostess had a primary goal in mind when she held a dinner party, and that purpose was to flaunt her status. She aimed to impress her guests with elaborate dishes. Victorian Dinner Parties :: Victorian Era Victorian Dinner Parties Victorian dinner parties where associated with the upper class, not usually the middle class, and were attended by eminent guests of status. Lord Steyne, a character from the novel Vanity Fair, would have been invited to many such parties were he a real person who lived in that Era. The Victorian hostess had to consider three main things: The Guests At Victorian dinner parties, the hostess invited guests from the upper class of society. Typically, she invited one guest of honor, an eminent gentleman (Margetson 73). She also looked to invite some guests with musical skills or entertaining abilities. The number of men and women had to be equal, since every gentleman was given charge of a single lady of similar rank whom he was to accompany into the dinning room. During the course of the night, he made sure that she had a pleasant time (Ferguson). Pairing men and women into such couples was easy for the hostess when her guest had a spouse -- since she was required by etiquette to invite the spouse of her guest in addition to him - but pairing was more difficult when she invited unmarried persons. When she had a single man at her party, the hostess had the duty of finding him a single woman to entertain; though this task was difficult because ladies did not accept invitations unless they had an escort already, for fear of being call ed "fast" (Margetson 73). The Setting Pairing the guests was not the sole concern of the Victorian hostess. She had to make sure her house was in order, in particular, her parlor and dinning room, since the party was set in those two areas. First, guests would assemble in the parlor, where the pairing took place. Then, starting with the highest-ranking guest, each man escorted his lady into the dinning room, which the hostess decorated with opulence. After dinner, the ladies went back into the parlor for tea or coffee, while the men stayed at the table, talking, drinking and smoking. Next, the men went to join the women in the parlor. The ones who were too inebriated stayed behind. During this final part of the occasion, guests amused themselves with card games, magic tricks, and musical entertainment (Ferguson) . The Dinner The Victorian hostess had a primary goal in mind when she held a dinner party, and that purpose was to flaunt her status. She aimed to impress her guests with elaborate dishes.

Following in the Ways of Zen Buddhism Essay -- Essays Papers

Following in the Ways of Zen Buddhism I fell in love with the first Buddhist I ever met. That is to say I fell in love with a man who is a Buddhist. I, however, am not a Buddhist. I have faith in what I find to be right rather than committing to a religion that I would not wholeheartedly believe in. It would seem that a difference in our spiritual practices may be a strain on our relationship, but in truth our faith lies in similar areas. The biggest difference between us is that I lack the knowledge and self discipline to be a practicing Buddhist. In loving Matthew I also want to gain understanding in what it is he believes. I have read through several texts in passing and find Buddhism more appealing as I continue to research it. In seeking to know more of Buddhism, I am promoting Buddhism as a beneficial practice. There are so many different kinds of Buddhism that it would be rather hard to write a definitive work on all of them. The type of Buddhism that Matt chooses to follow the most closely is Zen Buddhism, though there are also Tantric practices he engages in. Information from an affiliate of the University of Virginia named Jennifer Gruia states that Zen Buddhism is founded upon the enlightenment of Siddhartha Gautama . Achieving enlightenment at the age of thirty-five, he gained the status of Buddha (â€Å"One who is awake†) and came to the realization that everything is subject to change and that suffering and discontentment are the result of the attachment to circumstances and things which, by their nature, are not permanent. That is how Zen Buddhism found its beginning, but some say that Bodhidharma is its founder since he spread the teachings across India and China . ( Gruia ) ... ...oduce great deeds, great art and culture, and greater still, great men.†(Humphreys 98) I believe my fiancà © Matthew to be one of those great men, and I attribute at least part of that to his faith and following in the ways of Zen Buddhism. Works Cited â€Å"Essentials of Buddhism: Core Concepts.† Buddhaweb . 10 October 2004. Gruia , Jennifer. New Religious Movements: Zen Buddhism. U of Virginia . 10 October 2004. Humphreys, Christmas. Zen Buddhism . London : Novello & Co. Ltd., 1957. Kabik , Matthew. Personal interview. 17 October 2004 . â€Å"Meditation for Health: Home.† Meditation for Health. 17 October 2004 Suzuki, Daisetz T. The Essential of Zen Buddhism. New York : E.P. Dutton & Co. 1962.

Remove Palagiarism

IntroductionIn step with Pakistan economic Survey 2014-15, the extent of change between Pakistan and China has accelerated to $16 billion. China's exports to Pakistan expanded by using ten percentage all through the five years from 2009- 10 to 2014-15.As a end result, China's share in Pakistan's total exports has progressively picked up from four percent in 2009-10 to 9 percentage at some stage in the financial yr 2014-15. The maximum recent milestone completed in this bilateral relationship is the signing of Memorandum of knowledge on the construction of China-Pakistan monetary corridor (CPEC). CPEC is a 3,218 kilometer long path, to be constructed over next numerous years, together with highways, railways and pipelines. The actual anticipated fee of the assignment is predicted to be US$seventy five billion, out of which US$45 billion plus will make certain that the corridor becomes operational by way of 2020. The last funding might be spent on electricity era and infrastructure development. The plenty advertised US$45 billion China-Pakistan financial corridor will skip through the lovely GilgitBaltistan province in the north in an effort to connect Kashgar in China's western province Xinjiang to relaxation of the world thru chinese-operated Gwadar port in the country's south. This mega undertaking is predicted to take the bilateral dating among Pakistan and China to new heights, it's a starting of a adventure which hopes to convert the economic system and help bridge Pakistan's strength shortfall.Present day scenario:According to the Board of funding (BOI), overseas Direct investment (FDI) inflows into Pakistan have multiplied by 74% all through the primary 4 months of the contemporary financial year. Those FDI inflow turned recorded should be $277. 7 million in the month of october Furthermore a significant and only this financing has fallen starting with china done type from claiming China-Pakistan monetary H (CPEC). Out of these parent the power sector were given lion's proportion of FDI, observed via production, financial offerings and communications area. ISLAMABAD: foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows into Pakistan have registered a splendid growth of 74 consistent with cent throughout first 4 months of the contemporary economic 12 months, chiefly because of CPEC, in step with Pakistan Board of investment (BOI). A BOI announcement issued on Thursday found out that Pakistan acquired FDI of $939.7 million up to now in July-Oct 2017-18 that represents a seventy four. Four according to cent boom whilst compared to the inflows recorded in the course of the equal period of the preceding year. Within the month of October 2017, FDI inflows become recorded to be $277.7 million, more than double of the FDI of $one hundred fifteen. Three million in the equal month ultimate 12 months.In keeping with BOI, China becomes the leading investor united states with $631.7 million, up 224.6% from the identical duration in the monetary 2016-17. Chinese language companies invested huge component in their budget in power and infrastructure tasks below China-Pakistan monetary hall (CPEC).The net influx of FDI from Malaysia stood at $107 million in July-Oct FY18, towards $9.four million throughout the same period last year. French buyers accounted for $38.0 million in FDI during the period beneath evaluation. Power zone received the lion's proportion of overseas budget, observed by way of production, financial offerings and communications sector. The inflow of direct investment within the strength area became increased by using a hundred twenty five.4% to $422.4 million in the 4 months of FY18. Those change range fetched $177. 0 million Previously, FDI, contrasted with $31. 4 million a 12 months prior.Telecommunications bounced back as compared to closing yr after inflow of FDI accelerated to $sixty four.9 million opposite to an outflow of $38.three million for the duration of the same period in FY17. The finance region and oil ; gasoline exploration sectors acquired $76.three million and $fifty seven.9 million respectively, at some stage in the 4 months of this monetary year.Brighter FDI prospects are predicted in FY18 as economic system appears to be increasing and paintings on sure electricity generation and improvement tasks below CPEC remains on target. The change range fetched $177. 0 million for FDI, contrasted with $31. 4 million 12 months sooner. The board said it have been closely working with Chinese language experts from country wide development and Reform commission (NDRC) of China for relocation of Chinese language industry into Pakistan and industrialization of unique monetary zones (SEZs) alongside CPEC. 33 gathering of joint attempting institutional (JWG) ahead business participation got to be held for November 9 same time the 7th JCC is predicted to a chance to be held looking into November 21in Islamabad. Large Chinese language investments are anticipated in these special monetary zones, with the intention to be instrumental in attracting FDI from different international locations as nicely, the announcement concluded.BenefitsProfits the CPEC will open entryways will enormous budgetary chances not main to Pakistan Be that as will physically join china should its business sectors for Asia, Europe Also Past. Just about 80% of the China's oil is presently transported starting with strait for Malacca on Shanghai, (distance may be very nearly 16,000 km What's more takes 2-3 months), for Gwadar getting to be operational, those separation might decrease should short of what 5,000 km. Though every last bit dives great Furthermore on schedule, of the 21 assentions looking into energy– including gas, coal Furthermore sun oriented energy– 14 will have the capacity on provide dependent upon 10,400 megawatts (MW) for vitality by Walk 2018. As stated by china Daily, these undertakings might give dependent upon 16,400 MW about vitality inside and out. Similarly as and only foundation ventures worth pretty nearly $11 billion, Furthermore 1,100 kilometer long motorway will be constructed between the urban communities for Karachi Furthermore Lahore,2 same time those Karakoram roadway the middle of Rawalpindi and the Chinese fringe will make totally recreated What's more overhauled. The Karachi–Peshawar fundamental route line will additionally make upgraded on considers train goes during dependent upon 160 kilometers for every hour Toward December 2019. 3 Pakistan's track system will additionally make stretched out within the end unite with China's southern Xinjiang track done Kashgar. 4 An system from claiming pipelines should transport condensed characteristic gas Furthermore oil will additionally make laid Likewise and only those project, including An $2. 5 billion pipeline the middle of Gwadar and Nawabshah will transport gas starting with Iran. 5 oil starting with the center east Might make offloaded during Gwadar Furthermore transported will china through the corridor, cutting those present 12,000 km venture will 2,395 km. It will go about as An span to those new oceanic silk course that envisages linking 3 billion people over Asia, Africa Furthermore Europe, and only a trans-Eurasian one task. At fully operational, Gwadar will Push the investment improvement about pakistan Also ended up An passage for focal Asian countries, including Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, linking Sri Lanka, iran Also Xinjiang will embrace marine transport. 6 over $33 billion worth for vitality base will a chance to be constructed. Eventually Tom's perusing private consortia will assistance allay Pakistan's Ceaseless vitality shortages,7 which consistently sum with In 4,500MW,8 Furthermore have shed a evaluated 2-2. 5% off Pakistan's yearly GDP. 9With pretty nearly $33 billion needed with make put resources into vitality division projects, force era expects a paramount part in the CPEC one task. Through 10,400MW about vitality generating ability may be on make created between 2018 Furthermore 2020 Likewise and only the corridor's fast-tracked â€Å"Early Harvest† activities. 10 the area about Baltistan may be known for its new tree grown foods exports, in cherries, apricot Furthermore apples, CPEC will a chance to be an amusement changer Eventually Tom's perusing opening benefits of the business chances for the region's merchants. This will furnish nearby brokers with favorable element Also assistance them twofold their offers by enormous sparing done cosset for transportation. Presently, fruits would being exported through air-cargo by means of Dubai it might a chance to be speedier and less expensive. In those same Might be sent Toward way to china by means of Xinjiang. Tourism which right now makes up an pitifulness and only our income is accepted with a chance to be raised Eventually Tom's perusing opening from claiming this monetary hall. Those CPEC, a portion believe, will additionally support tourism in the 73,000 square km district. Those area is acknowledged will make An mountaineer's paradise, since it is home with five of the ‘eight-thousands' (peaks over 8,000 meters), and additionally more than 50 mountains again 7,000 meters. It is Additionally home of the world's second most noteworthy crest k2 and the nanga parbat. 11Conflicts between motives those one task encompassed Toward the greater part good faith yet can't a chance to be completely discerned without apprehensions. Legislature of Pakistan (GoP) cases with resuscitate Diamer-Bhasha dam for Indus stream in Gilgit –Baltistan, in the second stage from claiming CPEC, bringing about those processing from claiming 4500MW about power furthermore will serving Similarly as an enormous water supply for the country, which constantly verified Eventually Tom's perusing Asian advancement bank (ADB), Gilgit-Baltistan need the possibility to prepare almost 50,000MW from claiming vitality. Only Bunji Dam, a run-of-the-river task that those ADB need contributed in, need the ability to produce dependent upon 7,100MW power The point when finished. Those inquiry constantly brought up in the psyche of the commoners would At by fabricating hydro tasks Pakistan could securely import vitality. Also will have sufficient to utilize it for its advancement also the reason develop an exorbitant 750km transmission line?.ConclusionThose CPEC shows up with be a essential one task for both the nations. For china it gives a substitute secure course will import vitality Furthermore Figure new businesses for its products Also administrations. To Pakistan it aides counters Indian impact in the region, position itself Likewise a significant travel perspective interfacing Eurasian locale for soutane Asia Also south East Asia What's more gatherings give a a great deal required base to kick begin its monetary development.

Chicana Role in Society

JannineClare Mendioro K. Land Puente English 102 12/07/12 Paper #5 My mom would sometimes look at me and says my generation is lucky. I never did give a thought what she meant about what she said especially when I came from a family, a clan where women are normally treated as equal as men and sometimes are more precious. But as I slowly grow up, I realized my family traditions view of women are different from the majority of people. In majorities, traditionally women are supposed to stay at home, take care of the kids and dependent towards men. The only females that were permitted to go during the old days were wealthy privilege daughters.During the generation x, women have concerns about equality. Even though Anglo women generally have the same concern with color women, Chicana women have more problem due to their cultural difference which cause Chicana to struggle to adapt in current society means. Regardless what race, majority of women were conventionally oppressed and were not s een equal to men. In â€Å"La Chicana: Her Role in the Past and Her Search for a New Role in the Future† by Berinice Rincon, Rincon portrays Chicanas role in the family. Rincon explains that Chicana women are â€Å" †¦ xpected to be submissive, faithful, devoted, and respectful to her husband and to take the major responsibility for rearing the children†(25). The wife's role in the family is to take care of the kids and the household chores. She is not expected to do anything that’s not related to household chore and taking care of the children. Specifically, â€Å"†¦. Nor is she supposed to share in [her] [husband] political, economic or social activities unless they are centered around the home†(Rincon,25) and she may â€Å"†¦ not interrupt when [he] talk about the things that interest [him] and [his] friends†(Brady,25).As Brady stated, the ideal wife is â€Å"A wife who will have the house clean†(25). Brady is a white house wife who is also expected to do the chores at home. Women were not supposed to talk about political and/or economic view because by doing so they would be questioning mens decision. In addition, Kincaid, a caribbean women claims that the mothers also teaches their daughter â€Å"How to iron [their] father’s khaki shirt†(Kincaid) because when they grow up they would be the one who will iron their husbands khaki.The mother is conditioning their daughter to be submissive by teaching them to take care of the household chores and following her footsteps. Furthermore, Brady conveys that men would like a women who will support them in their career. A wife who would work for him to go to school, take care of the family and take care of the house. Then the men would want â€Å"†¦ a wife to quit working and remain at home so that [his] wife can more fully and completely take care of wife duties† (Brady,26). Because, traditionally women were viewed to stay at home and not work.Thus, â€Å"It is her place and duty to stand behind and back up her macho† (Vidal,23). Actually, White women and Chicanas tackles the same issues in society. First, â€Å"Women are not accepted as community leaders either by the Chicano movement or by the Anglo establishment†(Vidal, 22). During generation x, it is not common to have a women as a leader because they were conventionally portrayed to be submissive and not involved in economic and/or political view thus making it harder for them to gain equality and/or fight for change in their current situation.In fact, â€Å"The white male rulers would want Chicana to accept their oppression precisely because they understand that when Chicanas begin a movement demanding legal abortion, child care, and equal pay for equal work, this movement will pose a real threat to their ability to rule†(Vidal,24). White men want Chicana to accept their oppression because if they don’t accept oppression, they w ould help their white female counterparts to gain equality considering that they have generally the same concerns therefore posing a threats towards white mens power.On this occasion women wants equal pay and right to control their own bodies. What’s more, â€Å"84% agreed that women do not receive equal pay for equal work† (Vidal, 21). Women were not treated equally. Even though they do the same work as the men, no matter what race they were, women were not getting payed with the same amount of money as the men did which will cost shortage in home income. Less money they bring at home the more they will have problems because the cost of living is going up. Furthermore, Vidal claims the Chicana movement would want â€Å"Free legal abortions and birth control for the Chicano community†(21).Both Chicanas and White women are concerned about the right to control their own bodies as resulted in Roe vs Wade where wade won the case and her right to control her body. Th us both White and Chicana women wanted to have a free legal abortion and birth controls because with birth controls they could have more control on how many children they will have. Their expenses will increase if they have more children. It will be harder to support 5 or more kids especially if they only have a low income job.Although White women and Chicana women have things in common, Chicana women are more affected due to racial difference thus making it harder for them to cope in current time. In Latino culture a bad women is viewed as â€Å"The Mala is hard and impious and independent like the macho† (Rincon, 26). In this instance,â€Å"The social station of la mujer mala-Indian women- was [†¦. ] [that] [they] actively participated in the religious, social and commercial life of their own people. They shared the responsibility of the household and also contributed to the economy and social life†(NietoGomez, La Chicana.. 50) but â€Å"The Anglo tradition of industrial and political democracy has encourage women to actively seek equal rights and employment outside the home† (Rincon,26). This is where traditional values of Chicana is crushed with modern time. It was harder for chicana to be encouraged by the industrial and political democracy of the Anglo to fight for their independence because Chicanas culture viewed an independent woman and a woman who participates in economic and politics as a â€Å"bad† women just like the la mujer mala-Indian women.Hence â€Å"The Chicana is torn between being what her [Culture] wants her to be and what she knows she must become in order to function in today’s action oriented world† (Rincon,26). To function to current time she needs to be independent but her cultural views contradicts it. As a result â€Å"84% felt that they were not encourage to seek professional careers and that higher education is not considered important for Mexican women†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Vidal,21). Bec ause most Mexican women felt like higher education is not necessary, they wouldn’t obtain higher education therefore making them only eligible to have a job as a worker.To put it another way, â€Å" Raza women suffer a triple form of oppression: as members of an oppressed nationality, as workers, and as women†(Vidal,23). â€Å"Because the Chicana may suffer from the sex discrimination as well as from racial discrimination, the Chicanas income is at the bottom of the economic ladder† (NietoGomez, Chicanas in.. ,126). For example, â€Å"The median income of the Chicano ($5100) is almost three times as much as the median income of the Chicana ($1800)† (NietoGonez, Chicanas in.. ,126). â€Å"Therefore, the Chicana is primarily a poorly paid worker, with ittle or no job opportunities† (NietoGonez, Chicanas in.. ,127). Chicana is basically the most unprivileged people. Their own culture discriminate them to be independent and if they try to get a job the y have the least opportunity to earn money and to change their current situation. It would be more tougher if the women is a single parent and/or the only one in the family who has an income. As a result of Chicanas cultural values where women are supposed to be dependent, it made it harder for them to advance in society.Their cultural values collided with moderns times cause them to be behind in society’s change. That explains why there are only few successful chicanas because it took them longer to be encourage to have a career. In todays generation, generation y, women are encouraged to have careers, especially minority women. In fact, there are scholarship, programs and foundations that encourage minority women to go to male dominant fields. There are still a little discrimination in workplace but it’s not as severe as before and it’s pretty rare too.If someone discriminate a person due to their gender, that person could sue the person who discriminated them . There are still double standards but as time goes by double standards slowly fades away. â€Å"The status quo must go! It is a new time, and we need to make use everybody’s talent and energy† (Rincon,25). For our country to develop and become more successful we need to encourage everybody to strive for a higher standard and provide them the opportunity to reach their dreams no matter what race and/or gender they are.

Hawaii Culture Essay

1. Queen Liliuokalani was the first and only reigning Hawaiian queen. Imperialism is the policy by which stronger nations extend their economic, political or military control over weaker nations. William Seward was the Secretary of State under presidents Lincoln and Andrew Johnson he purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867. Pearl Harbor was the Hawaiian port granted by 1887 treaty to the United States for use as a refueling station for U.S. ships. They connect and are important because when Queen Liliuokalani was queen the U.S. started following imperialism and kind of took over Hawaii. Hawaiians were forced to agree to the treaty of 1887. Which allowed the U.S. to have Pearl Harbor. William Seward was provoking imperialism. 2. Cultural interests Cultural interests Economic interests Economic interests Military interests Military interests Why Americans support imperialism Why Americans support imperialism 3. William Seward contributed to U.S. expansion by convincing the senate to buy Alaska from Russia for $7.2-million. 4. Planters staged a revolt because Queen Liliuokalani believed that American planters had too much influence, she moved to limit their power. Around the same time, U.S. trade laws changed to favor sugar grown in the United States. Planters with the help of U.S. Marines, they overthrew the queen and set up their own government. They then asked to be annexed by the United States. 5. The purchase of Alaska was farsighted because in the end the United States had acquired a land rich in timber, minerals and, as it turned out, oil. 6. If President Cleveland’s wishes had been respected by the subsequent U.S. administration then Hawaii wouldn’t have been a state and there wouldn’t have been a bombing at Pearl Harbor during the world war. 7. The United states have overthrew the queen and taken control for themselves. The Hawaiians are rebelling bet we can’t stand against them and now we are being forced to join the United States as a state. They also are going to take our best port and turn it into their own military base. I think what they are doing is wrong because this is our land. We let them come in we never knew that they were going to take over. Just because they are more powerful doesn’t mean they can use that power on us. That is exactly like bullying.

How Economic Development In A Country Affects Planning And Management In Urban Areas

With reference to examples, discuss the degree to which the level od economic development in country affects planning and management in urban areas. The type of urban problems that require careful planning and management are largely decided by the economic wealth of a countryside. LEDC countries have problems with rapid urbanisation into the cities. However, on the other hand the problems that MEDC countries face include; suburbanisation, counter urbanisation. Urbanisation is the process in which people move to the city and start to make a home there.This is mainly happening in LEDC countries due to the lack of work in the countryside. People flood to the cities to try and find employment. Suburbanisation is the way that people move out from the central business district and out into the rural urban fringe, this mainly occurred in MEDC countries after industrialization; people had got more spare money and transport allowed them to move away from the centre of the city to the large ho uses in the suburbs. Finally, counter urbanisation is the move that people make completely away from the city and into the rural landscape.Happening primarily in the richer countries where people aspire to be away from the stress of the city when they are not working and move into the countryside. Each of these processes have their own problems that require the careful management mentioned above. Urbanisation can cause a lot of problems. When there are such a large number of people moving into the city there are not enough houses to accommodate them all. In many cases the pull factor towards the city is the prospect of work and this is not always possible.The situation that then occurs it that you have a lot of people moved to the city without any work or housing; so, they simply build their own cheap homes on the side of the main city called a slum. These slums can prevent easy excess in and out of the city; but, not only this because way that the houses are built there are no prop er facilities for the people in the slum. Disease is often a consequence of poor sanitation and crime can pervade in these areas because of the high unemployment and lack of money. It is for the benefit for everyone that  these slums are redeveloped into proper housing and sanitation.A example of how urban area need to be managed. Rocinha is the largest favela in Brazil, and is located in Rio de Janeiro's South Zone between the districts of Sao Conrado and Gavea. Rocinha is built on a steep hillside overlooking Rio de Janeiro, and is located about one kilometre from a nearby beach. Most of the favela is on a very steep hill, with many trees surrounding it. 69,161 people live in Rocinha. The authorities in Rio de Janeiro have taken a number of steps to reduce problems in favelas.They have set up self-help schemes; this is when the local authority provide local residents with the materials needs to construct permanent accommodation. This includes breeze blocks and cement. The Local residents provide the labour. The money saved can be spent on providing basic amenities such as electricity and water. Today, almost all the houses in Rocinha are made from concrete and brick. Some buildings are three and four stories tall and almost all houses have basic sanitation, plumbing, and electricity. Compared to simple shanty towns or slums, Rocinha has a better developed infrastructure.The favela also has a cable car to promote easy movement around the favela and into the main city. This was a government lead initiative. This is not the only one way that slums can be redeveloped. Government lead slum clearance is where land is bought under the residents and redeveloped into better accommodation. The other option is for the people of the slum redeveloping their own house individually making the whole area look better. The decision for which of these management options is the best is something that is decided at government level.Slums that are in a extremely bad situation a re likely to be tackled with slum clearance as it is the quickest method. Conversely, in MEDC countries slums are not such a problem because urbanisation happened many years ago after industrialisation and the country has moved on economically. The problem here is suburbanisation. The people who can move away from the central business district because it is loud and polluted but it left the unfortunate people who could not afford to move out in the CBD. This can lead to a state of urban decline.If there is a high percentage of council owned buildings the resident feel like they do not need to look after the environment because it is not their problem, graffiti and littering is a result of not caring. The situation from here can just get worse and worse and crime rates goes up and empty buildings are left unused. This process is not something that just occurs with the residents of an area, if all the people move out to the suburbs of a district the shops and facilities will either go out of business or the will soon follow into the suburbs.This does not help the process of urban decline as it means that more local people are made unemployed. A good example of where this has happened is the development of Mary hill shopping park in the west Midlands. Mary Hill has had to face the complaints of the businesses in the local centres of Solihull and Birmingham. Business have had to drive down prices to be competitive with the shopping centre with is not good for the economics of the area. Management of urban decline can be tackled in three ways. Property lead redevelopment, partnership schemes and gentrification.Property lead redevelopment is when the government decide to redevelop a area a invest large amount of money are on a large scale. A good example of where this has helped to bring a urban area out of decline is in Cardiff. Cardiff bay was a declining area when the loss of industry in the 1970s left a lot of people in unemployment and poverty. 3000 new homes w ere created, 1200 new jobs were created along with a new glass factory and water front. The area now has 2. 1 million visitors a year. Partnership schemes help the community rebuild a declining area such as in Hulme in Manchester.City challenge and the local people worked together to redevelop the area. The government provided ?37. 5 million for this to happen. For some people being on the edge of the city is still too much stress and decide to move completely away to the rural villages that surround big cities. This process of counter urbanisation can cause problems of their own. Rural villages are in danger of becoming places that people go to sleep. People still work in the cities and commute from their rural location every day. The local shops are no longer used because the supermarkets on the way out of the city from are not only more convenient but cheaper.The community feeling if the village is lost and the reason that people thought they were moving to the countryside for is no longer valid. Again this forces the closer of shops and local facilities. These places can also fall into a state of decline To conclude. Economic development and urban management and planning are directly linked. On the surface it seems like MEDC counties have more problems to deal with (sub urbanisation and counter urbanisation) whereas LEDC countries only have the problem of urbanisation.However, I believe that urbanisation is greater problem that requires more careful management than other problems may require. Furthermore, the level of economic development within a country may effects the ability of the country to manage these urban issues; the planning a management strategies adopted in a country will be affected by this. In poorer countries emphasis may be placed on self-help schemes or partnerships scheme that require less money from the government. On the other hand, richer governments may choose to head redevelopment projects themselves